Bacteria Outline essays

Bacteria Outline essays - Oldest, structurally simplest, most abundant forms of life - Only organism with prokaryotic cellular organization - The only members of the kingdom Monera (4800 different kinds) - Characteristics change depending on growth conditions - Maintenance of life depends on them - play vital role of productivity and as decomposers - Capable of fixing atmospheric N for use by other organisms - Used in production and fermentation of various food and as antibiotics and is being tested for - All bacteria fundamentally single celled - Sometimes cells adhere within a matrix to form filaments - Activities of bacterial colonies less integrated and coordinated than in multicellular eukaryotes Cell Size 10x size of bacteria 1 micrometer (Ã §m) diameter Chromosomes Membrane bound nucleus w/ chromosomes w/ nucleic acid Cell Division and Genetic Remcombination Mitosis involving microtubules Sexual reproduction - meiosis/syngamy Binary fusion Lack of sexual reproduction - no equal participation Internal Compartementalization Respirational enzymes packed into mitochondria Corresponding enzymes bound to cell membranes Cytoplasm - no internal compartments/organelles (except ribosomes) Flagella Complex 9+2 structure of microtubules (whip-like motion) Simple w/ a single fiber protein flagellin Autotrophic Diversity Enzymes for photosyn. Packed in membrane-bound organelles (plastids) Only 1 type of photo. - release of O2 Enzymes bound to cell membrane Several patterns of aerobic/anaerobic photo. w/ formation of S, O, sulfate Chemosynthesis - process where certain bacteria obtain energy from oxidation of inorganic compounds and obtain C from CO2 - Lypopolysaccharide - polysaccharide chain with lipids attached - Molecules of it deposited over layer of gram positive - forming outer membrane - Makes gram negative bacteri...

Public Policy Essays

Public Policy Essays Public Policy Essay Public Policy Essay Johnson, R. W. , ; Joyce, P. G. (2008) Public budgeting systems (8th ed. ). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Schuster II, W. Michael 2010 For the Greater Good: The Use of Public Policy Considerations in Confirming Plans of Reorganization New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing, LLC Williams, Cathy The Georgia Public Policy foundation retrieved from gppf. org/ on June 5, 2011

Crowd-funding web sites are growing rapidly and have become one of the Essay

Crowd-funding web sites are growing rapidly and have become one of the newest ways of raising funds for various purposes - Essay Example Examples of these websites include: Kickstarter which finances creative projects, IndieGoGo which finances a wide range of ideas and new startups and rocket hub. Discussion The above three crowd-funding are elaborated here: Kickstarter: This is a financial site for inventive projects ranging from games, films as well as music  to art, technology and design. In this avenue each project creator is solely setting his project's financial support goal and deadline (Holden & Finlayson 2005).  If the project is liked by the people, they can guarantee money to facilitate it happen.  Given the project does well  in achievement its backing goal, every backer credit card is charged  on expiry of the time whereas if it fails to achieve its goal no one is charged thus funding in site is all-or-nothing. All items on Kickstarter have to be projected with clear goals and deliverables because it does not allow charity, cause or fund me projects. As (Huzel & Huang 1992) argues, Backers of th ese projects come from its fans and friends and also from blogs, Press, Facebook, Twitter, and Kickstarter itself. A sponsor of these projects obtains a close look at the creative process, and thus ensures that project comes to life. They can select from a range of distinctive rewards given by the project initiator which range from a copy of whatever is being produced e.g. a DVD, CD, book or a skill unique to that project. 100% ownership of the project remains with the creators. For successfully funded projects Kickstarter charges a 5% fee to the finances collected. Processing fees for US-based project done Amazon payments and those for non-US ones done through a third-party payment processor amount to 3-5% (Lawton & Marom 2013). Indiegogo: This  is a multinational  crowd-funding  website whose main aim is to help individuals raise money for their personal projects. It has the same layout as Kickstarter though one can start any project even charity donations (Maguire 2012). Th e flexible funding plan has been developed to help backers receive the money even if the project fails to reach its funding goal though a higher fee charges are levied for this. Its founders are: Danae Ringelmann, Slava Rubin, and Eric Schell in the year 2008. The web site's structure gives users an interface to do the following: create their own page for funding campaigns, set up a  PayPal account, draft "perks" for various levels of engagements and then publicize it in the social media like  Twitter, Facebook and other similar platforms. Indiegogo charges a levy of 4% for every fund raised, and a 3% fee for credit card processing, plus an extra $25 wire fee to non-U.S campaigns (Rauf 2014). In case members had applied for the Flexible Funding plan and the campaign fails to attain its goal, Indiegogo charges 9% of the fund, but all the same get to take the outstanding balance away. Unlike other similar websites e.g.  Kickstarter, Indiegogo releases the money immediately, when the donations are collected via the user's PayPal accounts (Neiss, Best & Cassady-Dorion 2013). Indiegogo also gives a straight credit card settlement acceptance via their portal. Those contributions are given up to the second week after the completion of a campaign.

Evidence Based Practice amongst Physiotherapists. Attitudes, Essay

Evidence Based Practice amongst Physiotherapists. Attitudes, Knowledge, and Barriers - Essay Example Moreover, they consider reading of research literature as an important activity in their profession. But it is pointed out that there are some barriers which keep them away from reading research journals. In the concluding part, Kamwendo points out: â€Å"A cultural change within the profession, allowing more time for reading and discussing research reports should be encouraged.†(Kamwendo K, 2002) effective changes can be implemented in physiotherapy by allowing more time for reading and discussing research reports. Most of the Swedish physiotherapists like to read journals and other works in their own language. This prevents them to exploit the positive sides of EBP, because most of the journals published on EBP are in English. To conclude, it is important that most of the Swedish physiotherapists value EBP and research in physiotherapy. The research conducted by Diane U Jette, Kimberly Bacon, Cheryl Batty, Melissa Carlson, Amanda Ferland, Richard D Hemingway, Jessica C Hill, Laura Ogilvie and Danielle Volk, namely ‘Evidence-Based Practice: Beliefs, Attitudes, Knowledge, and Behaviors of Physical Therapists’, states that the physical therapist members of American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) strongly supports the Evidence Based Practice (EBP) in their field. The hypothesis points out the close relation between quality and individual practice characteristics of physiotherapists. The respondents supported the importance of evidence in practice because they like to rely upon evidence than theory. The theories are applicable for the general field of medical care. But when it is applied to physiotherapy, practitioner had to consider so many individual factors related to the patient. Rich literature in EBP helps physiotherapists to provide better patient care. It is a fact that younger and recently lic ensed practitioners rely on research works and EBP to improve their skills. Furthermore, most of the

The Anti-Federalists Objections to the Constitution Essay

The Anti-Federalists Objections to the Constitution - Essay Example The Anti-federalists believed that the power of the government should be concentrated in the legislature since it was the most democratic branch. They maintained that such a government offered the United States citizens the best protection for their essential rights. The Anti-federalist argued that the only way to ensure there existed democracy was through the allocation of power through particular texts. Therefore, they feared that the constitution that was being endorsed by the federalists delegated excess powers to the central government instead of these powers going to the states. They also pointed out that there was allocation of more authority to the judiciary and executive at the expense of the congress. It was explicitly clear in their minds that the federalists and their supporters were threatening the freedoms that Americans had defended against the Britain. Brutus incorporated these ideas into his attack against the proposed constitution. He suggests that a large republic would not succeed in a large country like the United States since it comprises of citizens who are diverse in many ways. According to him, such diversity would interfere with the operations and smooth running of the central government since many opinions and ideas would clash. Brutus believes that a republic can work in a small society like a state (Storing 37). Brutus also argued that the liberties of the US citizens were in danger since the federal government was being given a lot of powers that can be misused for personal gains. He gave examples of Britain and Rome where power had been misused and advised Americans not to follow the same trend. The freedom of the commonwealth was denied and their constitution overturned by their strong army which had been given powers. Julius Cesar who was appointed to lead the command capitalized on the loopholes in the constitution and changed it from a free republic into despotism. He also pointed out that the fear from a large standing army w as that the rulers may use them to promote their personal ambitions. They could also overturn the governments’ constitutional powers and gain their own powers to enable them dictate the US people. Brutus and other Anti-federalists advocates looked at themselves as the defenders of a self government that was going to offer outstanding leadership to the people of America. They supported leadership in small republics or the states with the rulers accessing limited powers that can not be misused. By giving examples of Rome and Britain where power had been misused, Brutus wanted the Federalists to learn from other countries and make adequate changes to the constitution. James Madison opposed the objections from the Anti-federalists by arguing that the government had to be designed to stop the politicians and the people from using it for their own selfish gains. He had contributed immensely to the constitution and this is why he countered the objections from the Anti-federalists st rongly. Among the many common features in the constitution was the idea of a balanced government system where the national authority was limited and reserving definite powers to the people through the local government. Madison also made other key contributions to the constitution such as the creation of a national legislature and the national chief executive. His strongest argument in support for the constitution was that, it had come up with a strong government capable of controlling the

Chemistry Essays Ethanoic Acid

Chemistry Essays Ethanoic Acid The characteristic smell of vinegar comes from the inclusion of ethanoic acid. The characteristic smell of vinegar comes from the inclusion of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), also known as acetic acid.   However, unless pure distilled vinegar is purchased, with a guaranteed and stated composition, there are other acids present in vinegar.   These include: citric acid HOOCCh1C(OH)(COOH)Ch1COOH), malic acid (2-hydroxybutanedioic acid)   HOOCCH(OH)Ch1COOH lactic acid (2-hydroxypropanoic acid) CH3CH(OH)COOH tartaric acid – (CHOH)2(COOH)2 For the purposes of this investigation the most volatile acid – ethanoic acid, is taken to be a measure of the acidity.   An attempt will be made to purify the vinegar so that it is mainly the ethanoic acid that is contributing the acidic content, but this cannot be guaranteed.   Vinegars chosen will be malt vinegar (A), red wine vinegar (B) and cider vinegar (C). Stage 1 – removing the colour from the vinegar Materials required 100cm3 of Vinegar samples A to C. 3 volumetric flasks, labelled A to C (250 cm3) 3 conical flasks, labelled A to C (250 cm3) Activated charcoal Metal spatula Glass stirring rod Filtration funnel Filter paper Method Place vinegar samples A in volumetric flask A and add 1 spatula measure of activated charcoal.   Stir well using clean glass rod.   Filter resulting mixture through filter paper and funnel into conical flask labelled A. Repeat using vinegar sample B with flasks labelled B; Likewise sample C. Note that the filtration process may need to be repeated if colour remains in the vinegar.   If charcoal is not fully removed from mixture then suction filtration may be required. Stage 2 – distilling the vinegar Due to the presence of other acids and additive to the vinegar the mixture needs to be distilled to purify the mixture to ethanoic acid and water. Materials required Distillation column and separating funnel Pear shaped flask Conical Flasks A to C from stage 1 Anti bumping granules Bunsen burner Heatproof mat Clamp and stand Goggles Ice bath Universal indicator paper Pippette Method Add filtered vinegar sample A to a pear shaped flask and set up distillation column above Bunsen, using clamp and stand.   Ensure all gaps are well sealed. Wash conical flask A with distilled water and use for collection of distillate Arrange column so that distillate drips into conical flask A, placed in ice bath. Gently heat mixture in pear shaped flask until distillate begins to collect in conical flask.   Test to see when all volatile acid has been distilled by placing drops of distillate onto universal indicator and checking pH colour. When pH registers over 7 cease heating. Repeat using vinegar samples B and C using clean apparatus. Stage 3 – determining the concentration of ethanoic acid Option A chromatography Materials Filter paper with pencil line drawn 2cm from bottom edge and pencil spots marked and labelled at 2 cm intervals along it Samples of ethanoic acid of known concentration eg 0.01 mol/dm3, 0.1 mol/dm3 and 0.05 mol/dm3 Glass beaker Vinegar samples A to C Glass pipette Water tweezers Bromocresol green indicator solution Household plant spray bottle gogglesMethod Place spots of known concentration ethanoic acid on each of the labelled pencil spots on the filter paper.   Place spots of vinegar samples A to C on remaining spots.   Place chromatogram in beaker with water up to 1 cm, ie below pencil line. Leave until water has spread  ¾ up filter paper.   Remove with tweezers and leave to dry. When dry spray with bromocresol green solution from household plant spray bottle until paper is damp but not sopping.   Dry chromatogram. Compare colour of indicator of samples A to C to known concentrations of CH3COOH, the one closest in colour would represent the actual concentration.This m ethod would not be chosen in the final experiment, as there is a lot of subjectivity to comparing the colours.   Also the technique of spraying the chromatogram is not easy to master. Option B – titration using sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Equations and scientific calculation methodology Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is a weak acid , which only dissociates partially in solution with water.   As an acid CH3COOH donates protons, which are accepted by water in solution to form the hydroxyonium ion: CH3COOH (aq) + h10(l) ↔ CH3COO-(aq) = H30+(aq) Sodium hydroxide is a strong base, so it dissociates fully in water: NaOH(aq) {+ h10 }↔ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) {+ h10} Note, that the water is effectively unchanged by the NaOH as the strong base dissociating causes an excess of OH-, which would shift the normal water dissociation equilibrium h10 ↔ H+ + OH- to the left. When titrated 1 mol of CH3COOH would react with 1 mol of NaOH in a neutralisation reaction to form the salt and water: NaOH (aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ↔ CH3COONa (aq) + h1O(l) Therefore if a known amount of a known concentration of NaOH is used to titrate a known volume of vinegar, the concentration of ethanoic acid in the vinegar could be calculated as shown in the example below: Molarity of solution x volume of solution = number of mols used. If 23ml of NaOH is used to titrate 20ml of vinegar and Molarity x volume / 1000 = no of mols used 1 x 23/1000 = 0.023mols of NaOH used to neutralise 20ml vinegar As 1 mol of NaOH is needed to neutralise 1 mol of CH3COOH then 20ml of the vinegar solution must also contain 0.023mols of CH3COOH. Using molarity x volume /1000 = no of mols used with the data that is known: Molarity x 20 / 1000 = 0.023 0.023 x 1000 = molarity x 20 0.023 x 1000 / 20 = molarity = 1.15M Therefore the vinegar is of concentration 1.15M.However, it is known however that vinegar contains around 5% ethanoic acid in water.   Therefore it can be assumed that the concentration of ethanoic acid would be closer to 0.1 mol/dm3 than 1mol/dm3.   As 1mol of CH3COOH neutralises 1 mol of NaOH, it would therefore be sensible to use NaOH of 0.1 mol/dm3. Part i – standardisation of alkali NaOH solution left for any length of time includes gases that have diffused in from the air.   Therefore, in order to be certain that the concentration is precise the alkali should be newly mixed immediately prior to use. Materials Sodium hydroxide (solid) Distilled water Measuring cylinder Glass stirring rod Metal spatula volumetric flask (1000 cm3) Method As NaOH has a molar mass of 40g/mol to make a 0.1 mol/dm3 solution 2.0g of NaOH(s) should be dissolved in 500ml distilled water in a volumetric flask and stirred until dissolved.   Part ii titration of ethanoic acid with NaOH Materials Burette White tile Clamp and stand Funnel Conical flask (250cm3) Volumetric flask (250cm3) Phenolphthalein indicator solution Phenol red indicator 0.1M NaOH solution Vinegar samples A to C Method Fill clean burette with 0.1M NaOH solution. Place 10cm3 of vinegar sample A in conical flask with a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Add NaOH to vinegar sample slowly, swirling flask to ensure mixing.   Phenolphthalein will turn from colourless to pink at the equivalence point (the point at which the amount of moles of one reactant is just enough to react exactly with the measured amount of the other reactant) as there would be the same amount of NaOH and CH3COOH present in the flask, leading to a neutralisation reaction, as explained above.   It will be assumed for this experiment that the end point and equivalence point are the same. The experiment would be repeated with vinegar samples B and C.   The experiment would also be repeated using phenol red as an indicator.   This would be expected to change from yellow to red at the equivalence point . The amount of 0.1M NaOH used could be used to calculate the concentration of ethanoic acid in each of the samples, via t he equation: Molarity x volume / 1000 = no of mols used Risk assessment and safety – chemicals NaOH is an irritant and can cause burns.   Ethanoic acid is a corrosive agent.   Phenolphthalein is an irritant and can cause burns. Goggles and protective clothing should be worn throughout.   If chemical comes into contact with the skin the area should be washed with plenty of clean running water.   If a large area of skin is affected or skin shows signs of burning (eg redness / swelling) medical advice should be sought immediately. If chemical comes into contact with the eyes wash out immediately with sterile eye wash.   If chemical is ingested wash out mouth with clean water and seek medical advice immediately. Do not induce vomiting as this may cause further damage. Do not breathe fumes of fresh NaOH solution.   Ideally experiment should take place in a fume cupboard.   If fumes are inhaled move immediately to an area of fresh air.   In case of difficulty in breathing medical advice should be sought. Risk assessment and safety equipment Burette should be filled with a funnel and should not be above shoulder height to avoid spillage. Goggles and protective clothing should be worn when using flames. Long hair should be tied back and loose clothing fastened securely when using flames.Care should be taken when assembling distillation equipment so that breakage does not occur.   Particular attention should be paid when inserting one tube into another and this should not be done in palm of hand in case of slippage and possible damage to hand. References and Bibliography Daintith, J. (ed) 1990, A concise dictionary of chemistry, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Harwood, P. Hughes, M. 2001, Acids and bases in Chemistry A2, eds. P. Harwood M. Hughes, 2nd edn, Harper Collins, London, pp. 28-53. Hunt, A. 2001, Physical Chemistry in A2 Chemistry, ed. A. Hunt, 1st edn, Hodder Stoughton, London, pp. 6-86. McNeil, K. 2004, COSHH Standard Assessment for Work in Chemistry Research Laboratories. University of Bristol Online. Available at: http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/safety/chemicalhazards.htm, Accessed 8th February 2006 . The Nuffield Foundation 2003, 13th November 2003-last update, Investigating Vinegars tutorial, The Nuffield Foundation Online. Available at: http://www.chemistry-react.org/go/Tutorial/Tutorial_4948.html   Accessed, 7th February 2006.

An investigation to determine which of four alcohols is the most exothermic :: GCSE Chemistry Coursework Investigation

An investigation to determine which of four alcohols is the most exothermic Prediction I predict that the most heat given out per mole burned would be by Propanol because the size of the alcohol molecules might increase with heat. Alcohols produce heat when they burn in oxygen or air. The amount of heat produced per mole of alcohol will be proportional to the amount of air present. Full combustion should generate two products only: carbon dioxide and water vapour. Hypothesis Within a molecule there are bond energies that are holding the atoms together. When the fuel combusts a chemical reaction takes place, this breaks the bonds, this requires energy, and makes new bonds this gives out energy. The energy differences between the two tell us how much energy was given out or taken in. We can show this on a graph. Alcohol particles will break their bonds when they mix with oxygen. This is known as exothermic reaction. Boiling points will be increased because energy is needed bonds can be formed and broken. Breaking bonds need less energy than is needed to form bonds - exothermic reaction. Bigger molecules use high energy to be broken. Methanol and Ethanol have differences as Methanol melts at a higher temperature and boils at a lower temperature than Ethanol. Higher alcohols which include Butanol and Propanol have a higher molecular weight and this is why Butanol is used in perfumes. Ethanol, which is sugar based, with its low freezing point, has a specific use as antifreeze for cars and other vehicles. GRAPH Tripod Matches Goggles Method: - To begin with, I choose one out of the four different alcohols. I weigh beforehand in the spirit burner. This is so I can calculate the mass which is lost in each alcohol. The spirit burner and alcohol which I am using is on a brick under a tripod. On the tripod I place a clay pipe triangle which holds a beaker containing 100ml of water. I light the spirit burner and stir the water with the thermometer constantly. When the temperature has risen to 30Â ºC, I quickly place the top back on the spirit burner. Now I re-weigh the alcohol. o find out how much alcohol has been burned I subtract the finishing mass from the starting mass. Fair Test I will try my best to keep this experiment fair. All the variables must be controlled. These are as follows - The scale reading has to be on zero before weighing the spirit burner